Introduction to Biology

Learning objectives by module

Chapter 1: Biology: The Science of Life

Part 2: Levels and Diversity of Life

• Define biology.
• List the characteristics of life and apply them to identify an item as biotic (living) or abiotic (nonliving).
• Describe and identify the levels of biological organization from molecules to the biosphere, noting the interrelationships between levels.
• Based on cellular characteristics and other clues, classify organisms into Domains (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryota) and identify major eukaryote groups (protists, plants, fungi, animals).

Part 3: Scientific Inquiry

• Identify scientific hypotheses based on whether they are falsifiable.
• Relate biology to other scientific endeavors.
• Apply an understanding of the nature of science to identify scientific and nonscientific claims.
• Explain how science uses reproducible experiments and verifiable observations to understand the physical world; distinguish between experiments and observations.
• Identify and distinguish between the independent variable, the dependent variable, and standardized variables in a controlled experiment.
• Distinguish between and identify the control group and experimental group(s) in an experiment.
• Recognize the problem of bias in scientific research. Explain the purpose and identify examples of placebo treatments; blind; and double-blind study designs.
• Define scientific theory and contrast to the everyday use of the word “theory.”
• Evaluate the results of a scientific experiment; determine if differences are likely to be significant based on sample size and patterns in the data.
• Determine if there is evidence for a cause-effect relationship based on the type of study conducted.

Chapter 2: Chemistry for Biology

Part 5: Introduction to Chemistry for Biology

• Describe the structure of an atom; identify subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons) based on charge, relative mass, and location.
• Apply your understanding of atomic structure to the function of radioactive isotopes used in medical imaging.
• Define isotope; for any given atom, mathematically relate atomic number, atomic mass, and number of neutrons in the nucleus.
• Define valence shell. Given an atomic number from 1 to 18, predict the number of electrons in the valence shell and infer the element’s reactivity.
• Define element; use atomic number to predict an atom’s structure (number of protons and electrons).

Part 6: Bonds and Molecules

• Compare ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds in terms of their strength and functions.
• Define ion. Based on number of valence electrons, predict the ion an element will form. Distinguish cations from anions.
• Define and describe ionic bonds.
• Define and describe covalent bonds. Given the atomic number, predict the number of bonds that an element will form and predict the structure of simple molecules.
• Interpret drawings (structural and skeletal formulae) of molecules and identify all atoms and covalent bonds in such drawings.
• Distinguish between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds. If given electronegativities of two atoms, predict the polarity of the bond between them.
• Define hydrogen bond. If given information on the structure of the molecule(s) involved, predict where hydrogen bonds will occur.

Part 7: Water

• List the four properties of water. Describe each property and identify its importance to life.
• Define hydrophobic, hydrophilic, and amphipathic; identify compounds that fit each category. Predict how compounds will interact with water based on their chemical structures.

Part 8: Organic Molecules

• Identify a molecule as organic or inorganic.
• Identify the reason organic molecules are diverse and durable.

Part 9: Carbohydrates

• Identify the four major classes of biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) based on their properties, structure, and functions.
• Define carbohydrate. Identify and distinguish among these carbohydrates: sugars, starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.
• List and identify energy-rich molecules that can be used as fuel in cells.
• Apply your understanding of carbohydrates to address dietary issues.

Part 10: Lipids

• Identify the four major classes of biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) based on their properties, structure, and functions.
• Identify lipid types (triglycerides, waxes, phospholipids, steroids) based on structure and biological functions.
• Identify the hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts of a phospholipid.
• Distinguish among saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats. Compare their structures, properties, and health effects as part of the human diet.

Part 11: Proteins

• Identify the four major classes of biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) based on their properties, structure, and functions.
• Recognize the chemical structure of amino acids, and describe how amino acids are connected to build proteins.
• Explain protein folding in terms of interactions among amino acids: hydrophobic effect, ionic interactions, hydrogen bonding, sulfur bridges.
• Define protein denaturation. Identify conditions that can cause proteins to denature, and describe the consequences of denaturation.
• Describe and distinguish among the four levels of protein structure.
• Describe the interaction between enzymes and substrates.
• Define activation energy. Explain how enzymes alter activation energy and predict how this changes reaction rates.
  Determine the consequences of an enzyme malfunction.

Part 12: Nucleic Acids

• Identify the four major classes of biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) based on their properties, structure, and functions.
• Describe the structure of a polynucleotide. Identify the 5′ and 3′ ends and describe how new nucleotides are added.
• Describe the structure of DNA. Identify the roles of covalent and hydrogen bonds in DNA structure and function.

Chapter 3: The Cell

Part 14: Introduction to The Cell

• List, explain, and apply the two basic tenets of Cell Theory.
• Describe the functions of cellular structures possessed by all cells.
• Compare and contrast the main characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Part 15: Eukaryotic Cells

• Compare and contrast the main characteristics of animal and plant cells.
• Describe and identify the main organelles of eukaryotic cells based on structure and function.
• Define antibiotic and identify the group of microbes they are effective against. Explain how misuse of antibiotics contributes to antibiotic resistance.

Part 16: Membranes and Transport

• Describe the properties of biological membranes and explain why they are important for cellular function.
• Predict whether molecules will pass through a phospholipid bilayer based on their size, polarity, and charge.
• Identify the functions of membrane components (phospholipids, sterols, carbohydrates, and proteins). Distinguish among membrane proteins (transport, receptor, recognition, enzyme, and adhesion proteins).
• Define diffusion. Predict and explain net movement of molecules by diffusion.
• Define facilitated diffusion and describe the role of channels or pores in facilitated diffusion.
• Define osmosis. Predict and explain cellular responses to hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions.
• Define active transport. Recognize situations where it is necessary, and identify the molecule that supplies energy for active transport.
• Describe endocytosis and exocytosis as a means of moving materials across the membrane.
• Explain how a malfunctioning membrane transporter can result in the disruption of normal bodily function.

Chapter 4: Metabolism

Part 18: Introduction to Metabolism

• Define metabolism. Identify and distinguish among the major biological energy pathways: photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and fermentation.
• Define energy and define matter. Identify examples of each.
• Distinguish between nutrients and wastes.
• Compare and contrast the cycling of nutrients and the flow of energy in ecosystems.
• Distinguish between catabolic and anabolic reactions and identify examples of each.

Part 19: Cellular Work and ATP

• Define energy and describe the different types of energy.
• Define work. Recognize examples of cellular work and identify the molecule that supplies energy to power it.
• Describe and identify the structure and function of ATP.
• Compare and contrast the reactions involved in the ATP cycle. For each reaction, identify cellular location(s), direction of energy transfer, and biological function.
• List and identify energy-rich molecules that can be used as fuel in cells.
  Apply knowledge of energy metabolism to the problem of obesity.

Part 20: Energy Pathways

• Describe the flow of energy in biological systems.
• Briefly state the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Describe evidence supporting this theory.
• Identify the inputs and outputs of photosynthesis.
• Identify the major steps of photosynthesis (light reactions, Calvin Cycle). Describe the cellular location, energy source, basic mechanism, and function of each.
• Recognize and explain some key adaptations found in photosynthetic producers, and identify factors that limit their growth.
• Identify the inputs and outputs for cellular respiration.
• Identify the four major steps of aerobic cellular respiration. Describe the mechanism, cellular location, and function of each step.
• Analyze connections between photosynthesis and cellular respiration in terms of carbon, oxygen, and energy.
• Define metabolism. Identify and distinguish among the major biological energy pathways: photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and fermentation.

Chapter 5: Cell Division

Part 22: Introduction to Cell Division

• Define cell division. Compare the parent cell to the daughter cells produced by cell division.
• Define development, cell differentiation, and stem cell. Distinguish among classes of stem cells and identify examples of each.
• Trace the events in a sexual life cycle, distinguishing somatic cells, germ cells, gametes, and the zygote. Identify the roles of mitosis, meiosis, and fertilization in the sexual life cycle.

Part 23: Chromosomes and the Cell Cycle

• Define chromosome. Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes. Identify the role of histone proteins.
• Identify the events that occur in each stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle. Describe the status of chromosomes (unduplicated/duplicated; loose/condensed) during each stage.
• Identify the ploidy of somatic cells, germ cells, and gametes in humans and other diploid organisms. Calculate chromosome numbers in each type of cell.
• Describe how sex is determined in humans. Identify the sex chromosomes typically found in somatic cells, germ cells, and gametes of both sexes.

Part 24: Mitosis

• Define mitosis. Explain the function of mitosis and describe how the parent and daughter cells compare in their ploidy, structure (duplicated/unduplicated), and genetic information.
• Identify the chromatids and centromere of a chromosome and describe their role in cell replication.
• Distinguish between homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids; compare them in terms of their origin and genetic information.
• List the phases of mitosis and describe what happens in each. Assign cell images or diagrams to the correct phase (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis, or interphase).
• Define cell cycle regulation and explain the role of checkpoints and of apoptosis. Explain how mutations of tumor suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes can lead to cancer.

Part 25: Reproduction and Meiosis

• Compare sexual and asexual reproduction and recognize the advantages and disadvantages of each.
• Define meiosis. Explain the function of meiosis and describe how the parent and daughter cells compare in their ploidy, structure (duplicated/unduplicated), and genetic information.
• Describe how sex is determined in humans. Identify the sex chromosomes typically found in somatic cells, germ cells, and gametes of both sexes.
• List the stages of meiosis and describe what happens at each stage.
  Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis in terms of their functions and phases. For each, describe the number, ploidy, and genetic diversity of cells that are produced.
• Identify the structures of the human reproductive systems and match structures to their functions. Apply knowledge to explain common methods of contraception and fertility treatments.
• Define aneuploidy. Explain what causes aneuploidy and describe how it can affect embryos or offspring. Analyze a karyotype to determine likely biological sex and detect examples of aneuploidy.

Chapter 6: Inheritance

Part 27: Introduction to Inheritance

• Define inheritance. Distinguish inherited (genetic) characteristics from those that are acquired (environmental).
• Relate an organism’s phenotype (characteristics, traits) to its genotype (genes, alleles). Explain how proteins connect genotype to phenotype.
  Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes. Given the genotype, predict the gametes that an individual will produce.
• Interpret the result of a cross between two homozygotes that differ in a single trait. Based on the outcome, identify the dominant allele and trait if justified.
• Relate patterns of inheritance to mechanisms involving protein function and dosage.
• Predict and interpret results of a cross between two individuals that are heterozygous for a single gene (monohybrid cross).
• Predict and interpret results of crosses involving single-gene traits. When justified, infer genotypes of parents based on the offspring they produce, or predict genotype and phenotype ratios of offspring from parents with known genotypes.
• Predict the outcomes of crosses with two traits and interpret the results.
• Define independent assortment. Explain why not all traits assort independently.

Part 28: Non-Mendelian Inheritance

• Identify the “Mendelian” inheritance pattern and recognize exceptions to or departures from Mendelian inheritance.
• Predict and interpret the outcomes of crosses involving characteristics that show incomplete dominance.
• Relate patterns of inheritance to mechanisms involving protein function and dosage.
• Predict and interpret the outcomes of crosses involving codominance.
• Define polygenic inheritance. Identify characteristics that are likely to be polygenic based on a description of the possible phenotypes (traits).
• Predict and interpret the outcomes of crosses involving epistasis between two or more genes.
• Define pleiotropy and recognize examples of this phenomenon.
  Define norm of reaction. Recognize examples of characteristics that are influenced by genetic and environmental factors working together.

Part 29: Human Inheritance

• Define genetic disorder and distinguish disorders from other kinds of diseases. Properly use and interpret terms mutant and wildtype to describe gene alleles.
• Analyze inheritance patterns of human genetic disorders and traits. Identify and solve problems involving autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, and sex-linked disorders.
• Analyze a pedigree to determine the pattern of inheritance (autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, or sex-linked) for a trait or disorder. Infer possible genotypes of individuals on a pedigree chart.

Chapter 7: Molecular Genetics

Part 31: Introduction to Molecular Genetics

• Define molecular genetics and distinguish it from other subfields of life science.
• Compare and contrast DNA and RNA in terms of structure, cellular location, and functions.

Part 32: DNA

• Describe how DNA stores genetic information. Distinguish among these levels of DNA organization: genome, chromosome, gene, codon, base pair.
• Define DNA replication. Identify its location and timing in eukaryotic cells. Specify the roles of DNA helicase, primers, DNA polymerase, and free nucleotides in the process.
• Define Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Identify its purpose; list the steps of PCR; describe what happens in each step.
• Define DNA profiling. Analyze short tandem repeat (STR) numbers or gel banding patterns to identify matches between DNA profiles. Interpret complete and partial matches.

Part 33: Gene Expression

• Define gene expression. Apply this concept to explain why cells with the same genome can differ in their structure, function, and activity.
  Summarize the Central Dogma of molecular biology. Place transcription and translation in order, and for each process identify its function and cellular location.
  Explain the logic and cellular process of transcription. Identify the roles of the DNA template strand, transcription factors, promoter, RNA polymerase, and terminator. Transcribe a DNA sequence to RNA.
• Explain the logic and cellular process of translation. Identify the roles of mRNA, tRNA, amino acids, start codon, ribosome, and stop codon. Use the genetic code to translate an mRNA sequence.
  Define mutation. With reference to the genetic code, predict the likely effect of example mutations on protein structure and function. Identify silent, missense, nonsense, and frameshift mutations.
  Define tumor suppressor gene (and protein). Explain and predict how mutations in these genes affect cancer risk.

Part 34: Gene Regulation

• Define gene regulation. Compare a cell’s genome to its proteome.
• List three major reasons for gene regulation and identify examples of each.
• Distinguish among gene regulation mechanisms (DNA packaging, X inactivation, transcription factors, mRNA processing, mRNA transport, regulation of translation, RNA interference). Identify how they each work to change gene expression.
• Compare the effects of changes (mutations) in protein-coding parts of a gene to those in regulatory regions (DNA switches).
  Distinguish genetic vs. epigenetic inheritance. Identify causes and potential effects of epigenetic changes.

Chapter 8: Evolution

Part 36: Gene Regulation

• Correctly identify the time scale for evolutionary change, the level of organization that evolves, and the types of questions evolution can address.
• Define scientific theory and contrast to the everyday use of the word “theory.”
• Apply an understanding of the nature of science to identify scientific and nonscientific claims.
• State the modern theory of biological evolution, emphasizing the long history of life on Earth, common ancestry, and natural selection.
• Distinguish between microevolution and macroevolution.

Part 37: Microevolution

• Define gene pool and microevolution and demonstrate how the two are related.
• Describe how the following concepts are interrelated: natural selection, adaptive trait, and adaptation.
• Define selection as a mechanism of microevolution; compare and contrast natural selection, sexual selection, and artificial selection.
• Define mutation, genetic drift, and gene flow. Recognize and identify examples of each and predict their consequences for a population.
• List and explain some applications of the principles of microevolution in modern medicine.

Part 38: Macro Evolution

• Define biological lineage; identify the components of a biological lineage.
• Define speciation and clade. Recognize the connection between taxonomic groups and clades.
• Relate the fossil record to evolutionary concepts; place major evolutionary events on a geologic time scale.
• Compare and contrast allopatric and sympatric speciation.
• Define homologous feature. Describe evidence for the relatedness of living organisms, including distantly and closely related species.
• Interpret a phylogenetic tree diagram; identify ancestors, evolutionary events, clades, and close vs. distant relatives on a tree diagram.
• Recognize how evolutionary thinking can contribute to our understanding of human health conditions and help us develop new therapies.

Chapter 9: Human Body & Health

Part 40: Introduction to Human Body & Health

• Explain the relationship between structure and function in biology.
• Describe and identify the levels of biological organization from molecules to the biosphere, noting the interrelationships between levels.
• Analyze homeostatic feedback systems; for a described example, identify the setpoint, stimulus, sensor, control center, and effector(s).
• Recognize challenges in health science; distinguish between in vivo studies, in vitro studies, case reports, observational studies, clinical trials, and systematic reviews.

Part 41: Fluid Transport

• Identify organ systems involved in fluid transport in humans; recognize the physiological functions of these systems.
• Identify the major organs of the human cardiovascular system. Associate structures with their functions and recognize the causes and effects of common cardiovascular health problems.
• Identify the major organs of the human lymphatic and immune systems. Associate structures with their functions and recognize the causes and effects of common health conditions that affect these systems.

Part 42: Exchange with the Environment

• Identify organ systems involved in exchange with the environment in humans; recognize the physiological functions of these systems.
• Identify the major organs of the human respiratory system. Associate structures with their functions and recognize the causes and effects of common respiratory health conditions.
• Identify the major organs of the human digestive system. Associate structures with their functions and recognize the causes and effects of common digestive health conditions.
• Identify the major organs of the human urinary system. Associate structures with their functions and recognize the causes and effects of common urinary health conditions.

Part 43: Structure and Movement

• Identify organ systems involved in structure and movement in humans; recognize the physiological functions of these systems.
• Identify the major organs of the human skeletal system. Associate structures with their functions and recognize the causes and effects of common skeletal health conditions.
• Identify the major organs of the human muscular system. Associate structures with their functions and recognize the causes and effects of common muscular health conditions.
• Identify the major structures of the human integumentary system. Associate structures with their functions and recognize the causes and effects of common integumentary health conditions.

Part 44: Control and Regulation

• Identify organ systems involved in control and regulation in humans; recognize the physiological functions of these systems.
• Identify the major organs of the human nervous system. Associate structures with their functions and recognize the causes and effects of common nervous health conditions.
• Identify the major organs of the human endocrine system. Associate structures with their functions and recognize the causes and effects of common endocrine health conditions.

Chapter 10: Ecology

Part 46: Introduction to Ecology

• Define ecology and identify its major levels of study from individual to biosphere.
• Define interdependence and identify examples at the level of individual organisms, communities, and ecosystems; recognize human dependence on natural systems (ecosystem services).

Part 47: Populations

• Define population and use sample data to calculate population size, population density, and per capita rates of birth and death.
• Use birth and death rates to calculate the rate of increase of a population and apply this to predict numeric growth in a population over a single time step.
• Identify a graph of exponential growth and distinguish it from linear growth.
• Recognize the many sources of variability in population sizes over time and distinguish models from data in studies of population ecology.
  Define limiting factor and recognize that some populations tend to limit themselves.
• Recognize a graph of logistic population growth and define carrying capacity.
• Apply principles of population ecology to practical problems including pest control, endangered species conservation, and fisheries management.

Part 48: Communities

• Define ecological community and describe how a community’s membership is determined.
• Define and recognize species richness as a measurement of community health and diversity.
• Define interspecific interaction; identify examples of symbiosis, mutualism, competition, and predation.
• Identify examples of species with strong effects on ecological communities; distinguish between foundation species, ecosystem engineers, and keystone predators.

Part 49: Ecosystems

Part 50: Human Impact